• • • • • • • • • • Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or to 'lead' or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The literature debates various viewpoints, contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) US vs. European approaches. US academic environments define leadership as 'a process of in which a person can enlist the aid and of others in the accomplishment of a common '.

Leadership seen from a European and non-academic perspective encompasses a view of a leader who can be moved not only by communitarian goals but also by the search for. Leadership can be derived from a combination of several factors. Have produced theories involving, situational interaction, function, behavior,, and,, and intelligence, among others. A graphical representation of the managerial grid model, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of, and (), and the management of the group tasks () according to three styles:,, and.

In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders, They would then identify if these particular behaviors reflective in leadership effectiveness. They were able to narrow their findings to two identifiable distinctions The first dimension was identified as 'Initiating Structure', which described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with their followers, defines goals, and determine how tasks are performed. These are considered 'task oriented' behaviors The second dimension is 'Consideration', which indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered 'social oriented' behaviors. The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950's, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness.

Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Download our FREE ebook 'A summary of motivation theories' to get an overview and brief practical analysis all the theories in one handy document. Framework expectancy theory for under- standing and organizing existing evidence and for pointing the way to new research problems is proposed [The Social Sciences. Citation index® (SSCI®) indicates that this book has been cited in over 1430 publica- tions since 1966]. Yale School of Organization.

Although they similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they did contribute an additional behavior identified in leaders. This was participative behavior; allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. Another term used to describe this is 'Servant Leadership', which entails the leader to reject a more controlling type of leadership and allow more personal interaction between themselves and their subordinates. The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by and in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement. Positive reinforcement [ ] is the father of and developed the concept of. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future.

The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day.

The manager of this employee decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised.

In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time. The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and growing technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates.

Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity. Empirical research covering the last 20 years suggests that has a 17 percent increase in performance. Hannah Montana Rock The Beat Game On Disney Channel Com. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs. Situational and contingency theories [ ].

Main articles:,,, and also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as suggested. (1884) (and ) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.

This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, 'what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions.' Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al., academics began to normalize the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in.

The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the 'hearts and minds' of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not 'take charge', they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems. Thus, theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation, which is sometimes classified as contingency theory.

Four contingency leadership theories appear more prominently in recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard situational theory. The bases the leader's effectiveness on what called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a 'favorable situation'.

Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability., in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973) and later with Arthur Jago (1988), developed a for describing leadership situations, which was used in a normative where leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation. This approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same manager could rely on different approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory. The of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the of.

According to House, the essence of the theory is 'the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance'. The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a, as it depends on the circumstances, and as a, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers. The proposed by Hersey suggests four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of follower-development.

In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Functional theory [ ]. General Petraeus talks with U.S. Soldiers serving in Afghanistan Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962; Adair, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001).

In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work.

A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (1953) observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards. Integrated psychological theory [ ].

Main article: The Integrated Psychological theory of leadership is an attempt to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. Traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, largely by introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery.

It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of and. Integrated Psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's (2011). Scouller argued that the older theories offer only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively. He pointed out, for example, that: • Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders. • An ideal style (e.g.

Blake & Mouton's team style) would not suit all circumstances. • Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology. • None of the old theories successfully address the challenge of developing '; that certain 'something' in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust and makes followers want to work with them. Scouller proposed the Three Levels of Leadership model, which was later categorized as an 'Integrated Psychological' theory on the Businessballs education website. In essence, his model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are Public, Private and Personal leadership: • The first two – public and private leadership – are 'outer' or behavioral levels.

These are the behaviors that address what Scouller called 'the four dimensions of leadership'. These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; (4) individual selection and motivation. Focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously.

Covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one to one. • The third – – is an 'inner' level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, knowhow and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical knowhow and skill (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people – which is the basis of servant leadership (3) Psychological self-mastery – the foundation for authentic leadership. Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits, thereby enabling behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of.

Transactional and transformational theories [ ]. Def Leppard Greatest Hits Zip. Main articles: and Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership, transactional that involves exchange of labor for rewards and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision. The transactional leader (, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. Leader–member exchange theory [ ]. Main article: This LMX theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process is the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model.

Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them. LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader. In-group members [ ] members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks.

If the follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members. In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests. Out-group members [ ] members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts.

With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization. Emotions [ ]. See also: Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process. In an organization, the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels: • The mood of individual group members.

Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of. Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which leaders influence followers.

• The affective tone of the group. Represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis.

Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood. • Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and.

Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good.

The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes. In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings. Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative at work.

The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events.

Leaders shape workplace affective events. Examples – feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders. Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to effective leadership within organizations. Neo-emergent theory [ ]. Main article: The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the ) sees leadership as created through the emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader himself.

[ ] In other words, the reproduction of information or form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known [ ] that the naval hero often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England he would receive a true hero's welcome. [ ] In modern society, the press, blogs and other sources report their own views of leaders, which may be based on reality, but may also be based on a political command, a payment, or an inherent interest of the author, media, or leader. Therefore, one can argue that the perception of all leaders is created and in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all.

Leadership Emergence [ ] Many personality characteristics were found to be reliably associated with leadership emergence. The list include, but is not limited to following (list organized in alphabetical order): assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring and social motivation. Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders.

People like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela all share traits that an average person does not. This includes people who choose to participate in leadership roles, as opposed to those who do not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis. There is no current research indicating that there is a “leadership gene”, instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Both anecdotal, and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior. Using a large international sample researchers found that there are three factors that motivate leaders; affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).

Assertiveness [ ] The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear; individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders. Authenticity [ ] Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders. Big Five personality factors [ ] Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more (order in strength of relationship with leadership emergence): extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups. Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence Birth order [ ] Those born first in their families and only children are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings.

Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative Character strengths [ ] Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork. Dominance [ ] Individuals with dominant personalities – they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way – are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations. Emotional intelligence [ ] Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people.

They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively. Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.

Gender identity [ ] Masculine individuals are more likely to emerge as leaders than are feminine individuals. This trend is expected to change in the modern era as in more developed countries we have seen how women have begun to rise to leadership position in the society as they were given equal rights compared to men. Intelligence [ ] Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.

Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between.25 and.30. However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed intelligence prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests and values Narcissism [ ] Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident. Self-efficacy for leadership [ ] Confidence in one's ability to lead is associated with increases in willingness to accept a leadership role and success in that role. Self-monitoring [ ] High self-monitors are more likely to emerge as the leader of a group than are low self-monitors, since they are more concerned with status-enhancement and are more likely to adapt their actions to fit the demands of the situation Social motivation [ ] Individuals who are both success-oriented and affiliation-oriented, as assessed by projective measures, are more active in group problem-solving settings and are more likely to be elected to positions of leadership in such groups Leadership Styles [ ]. Main article: A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership (, Political Style,, L'Hyperpolitique.

Technologies politiques De La Domination ). Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members. A field in which leadership style has gained strong attention is that of military science, recently expressing a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job.

A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.

Autocratic or authoritarian [ ] Under the leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with. Autocratic leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group. Participative or democratic [ ] The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality.

This has also been called. Laissez-faire or Free-rein [ ] In Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the sub-ordinates. The sub-ordinates are given complete right and power to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems or hurdles. [ ] Task-oriented and relationship-oriented [ ]. Main article: Task-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader is focused on the tasks that need to be performed in order to meet a certain production goal. Task-oriented leaders are generally more concerned with producing a step-by-step solution for given problem or goal, strictly making sure these deadlines are met, results and reaching target outcomes. Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style in which the leader is more focused on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.

Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, show trust and confidence in group members, and show appreciation for work done. Task-oriented leaders are typically less concerned with the idea of catering to group members, and more concerned with acquiring a certain solution to meet a production goal. For this reason, they typically are able to make sure that deadlines are met, yet their group members' well-being may suffer. Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer.

Leadership differences affected by sex [ ]. This section relies largely or entirely on a single. Relevant discussion may be found on the. Please help by introducing to additional sources. (February 2013) Another factor that covaries with leadership style is whether the person is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an style.

They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities.

They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact and respond tactfully to others' comments.

Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and finally, emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, it is important to note that these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations.

Performance [ ] In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance. Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership, including outcomes such as leader, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008).

For instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct.

While these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus. A is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader–follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it. One of the world's greatest military leaders Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made.

Current studies have indicated that leadership is much more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual. Years of observation and study have indicated that one such trait or a set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. What scholars have been able to arrive at is that leadership traits of an individual do not change from situation to situation; such traits include intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness. However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. The following summarizes the main leadership traits found in research by Jon P.

Howell, business professor at New Mexico State University and author of the book Snapshots of Great Leadership. Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance and sometimes dominance. People with these traits often tend to wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive with others. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits are able to formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Howell provides examples of Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln as encompassing the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments. Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self-esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-assurance.

Individuals who are self-confident do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions; they also have the ability to project this self-confidence onto others, building their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in individuals who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values with their followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. It is often said that these leaders keep their word and are honest and open with their cohorts. Sociability describes individuals who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted well by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, as well as hold the ability to adapt their social persona to the situation at hand.

According to Howell, Mother Teresa is an exceptional example who embodies integrity, assertiveness, and social abilities in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world. Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply a number of them to succeed as front-runners of their organization or situation. Ontological-phenomenological model [ ] One of the more recent definitions of leadership comes from,, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger who describe leadership as 'an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that wasn't going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties.' This definition ensures that leadership is talking about the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as 'followers' and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills on the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that wasn't going to happen is not the 'idea of the leader', but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership. Contexts [ ] Organizations [ ] An organization that is established as an or means for achieving defined has been referred to as a formal organization.

Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization.

It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal and of the individual.

Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves. In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours working for organizations.

The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders. Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards.

Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment. A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on title or formal authority. (Elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar.) Ogbonnia (2007) defines an effective leader 'as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society.' Leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist. An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position.

However, she or he must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially available to him/her. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions.

It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority. Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level. Management [ ] Over the years the philosophical terminology of ' and 'leadership' have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and generally reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns (1978) between 'transactional' leadership (characterized by e.g. Emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, management by exception) and 'transformational' leadership (characterized by e.g. Charisma, personal relationships, creativity).

Group [ ] In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation and mutual influence among the team members.

Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a as costing too much in team performance.

In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.

Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.

According to the National School Boards Association (USA): These Group Leaderships or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics: Characteristics of a Team • There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members. • There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, and learn from and work with others. • The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal. Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams: • Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals.

• Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals. • Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task.

• Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood. • Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth.

• Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized. • Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups. • Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together. • Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly. • Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members. Self-leadership [ ] is a process that occurs within an individual, rather than an external act.

It is an expression of who we are as people. Primates [ ] and in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can be found in other social species, too. And, in, present evidence that only humans and, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence,, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land. This position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal), and many others.

By comparison,, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership.

However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a ' chimp'. Myths [ ] Leadership, although largely talked about, has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Over the years, many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that the existence of several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership often interferes with individuals' conception of what leadership is all about (Gardner, 1965; Bennis, 1975). Leadership is innate [ ] According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive present at birth (e.g.,;; ). However, according to Forsyth (2009) there is evidence to show that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation. Thus, effective leadership can result from (i.e., innate talents) as well as (i.e., acquired skills). Leadership is possessing power over others [ ] Although leadership is certainly a form of, it is not demarcated by power over people – rather, it is a power with people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and his/her followers (Forsyth, 2009).

Despite popular belief, the use of,, and domination to influence others is not a requirement for leadership. In actuality, individuals who seek group consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can also become effective leaders (e.g., class president; court judge). Leaders are positively influential [ ] The of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, according to Baumeister et al.

(1988), the (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader. Moreover, it has been documented that group performance,, and all tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs. However, the difference leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including his/her own followers (e.g.,; ). Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.

Leaders entirely control group outcomes [ ] In it is generally assumed that group leaders make all the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment. Although common, this romanticized view of leadership (i.e., the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and their groups' outcomes) ignores the existence of many other factors that influence group dynamics. For example,, among members, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well as and established standards influence group functionality in varying capacities.

For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements. All groups have a designated leader [ ] Despite preconceived notions, not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women, are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making, or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a, where leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst members (Schmid Mast, 2002; Berdahl & Anderson, 2007; Guastello, 2007). Group members resist leaders [ ] Although research has indicated that group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance and overall group strength, most people actually prefer to be led than to be without a leader (Berkowitz, 1953). This 'need for a leader' becomes especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them. Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a leader (Stewart & Manz, 1995).

Action-oriented environments [ ] In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup (action environments). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of front line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment. This has been termed action oriented leadership. Some examples of demonstrations of action oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous environment. Other examples include modern technology deployments of small/medium-sized IT teams into client plant sites. Leadership of these teams requires hands on experience and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought out and concise decisions independent of executive management and/or home base decision makers.

Zachary Hansen was an early adopter of Scrum/Kanban branch development methodologies during the mid 90's to alleviate the dependency that field teams had on trunk based development. This method of just-in-time action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core team deployment schedules satisfying the clients need to rapidly patch production environment bugs as needed. Critical thought [ ] 's 1840 ', which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition in the 19th and 20th centuries. Noted in 1945 that leaders can and make mistakes - he warns against deferring to 'great men'. And others have subjected the concept of leadership to and have provided an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who 'want to be told what to do', these critics say that one should question why they are being subjected to a will or intellect other than their own if the leader is not a subject-matter expert (). Concepts such as,, and common, etc., challenge the fundamentally anti-democratic nature of the leadership principle by stressing and/or group authority in the workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out 'leadership' as the basis of a special class of individuals.

Similarly, various historical calamities (such as ) can be attributed to a misplaced reliance on the as exhibited in. The idea of paints leadership and its excesses in a negative light.

Executives [ ] Executives are energetic, outgoing, and competitive. They can be visionary, hard-working, and decisive.

However, managers need to be aware of unsuccessful executives who once showed management potential but who are later dismissed or retired early. They typically fail because of personality factors rather than job performances. • Chemers, M. An integrative theory of leadership. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.. • ^ Chin, Roger (2015)..

Team Performance Management. 21 (3/4): 199.. • • Goldsmith Marshall,, 2016 • Richards & Engle, 1986, p. Sanskrit Text Book -9th Grade. Government of Karnataka, India.

• Cano, PE, Librado F. Transformation Of An Individual Family Community Nation And The World.

Trafford Publishing. • Singh, Ravinder; Rani, Ajita (2017). Human Behaviour. Notion Press.. • Saxena Dr., P.K. Principles of Management, A Modern Approach. New Delhi: Global India Publications PVT LTD.

• The 100 Greatest Leadership Principles of All Time, edited by Leslie Pockell with Adrienne Avila, 2007, Warner Books • (1977).. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press (published 2002).. Retrieved 2014-07-21.

• Benjamin Jowett's translation of Plato's Republic does not use the word 'leadership'; Plato discusses primarily a ' class. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2014-09-12. • See, 'Instincts to Lead': On Leadership, Peace, and Education, Connor Court: Australia, 2013.

Social Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century. • Stogdill, R. 'Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature'.

Journal of Psychology. 'A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups'. Psychological Bulletin. 56 (4): 241–270.. • ^ Kenny, D. A.; Zaccaro, S. 'An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership'.

Journal of Applied Psychology. 68 (4): 678–685.. G.; De Vader, C. L.; Alliger, G. 'A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leader perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures'. Journal of Applied Psychology.

71 (3): 402–410.. D.; Rotundo, M.; Johnson, W.; Zhang, Z.; McGue, M. 'The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors'. The Leadership Quarterly. • ^ Judge, T. E.; Ilies, R.; Gerhardt, M. 'Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review'.

Journal of Applied Psychology. 87 (4): 765–780... • Tagger, S.; Hackett, R.; Saha, S. 'Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes'.. 52 (4): 899–926.. • Kickul, J.; Neuman, G.

'Emergence leadership behaviors: The function of personality and cognitive ability in determining teamwork performance and KSAs'. Journal of Business and Psychology. 'A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence'. The Leadership Quarterly.

9 (2): 147–160.. J.; Hauenstein, N.

'Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness'. Journal of Applied Psychology. 92 (2): 347–355... • ^ Zaccaro, S. 'Trait-based perspectives of leadership'.

American Psychologist. 62 (1): 6–16... • Zaccaro, S.

J., Gulick, L. 'Personality and leadership'. Goethals & D. Forsyth (Eds.), Leadership at the crossroads (Vol 1) (pp.

Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. • Gershenoff, A. 'Leader emergence and gender roles in all-female groups: A contextual examination'. Small Group Research. 34 (2): 170–196.. • ^ Mumford, M. D.; Zaccaro, S.

J.; Harding, F. D.; Jacobs, T. O.; Fleishman, E. 'Leadership skills for a changing world solving complex social problems'. The Leadership Quarterly.

'A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence'. Leadership Quarterly. 9 (2): 147–160.. • Magnusson, D. 'Holistic interactionism: A perspective for research on personality development'. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. New York: Guilford Press.

• • Horton, Thomas. New York: The CEO Paradox (1992) • • 'Ohio State Leadership Studies Explained with Examples'(2017) • AAmodt (2015) • Stoker (2016) • • Miltenberger, R. Behavior Modification Principles and Procedures (3rd ed). Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. • Lussier, R.

N., & Achua, C. Leadership, Theory, Application, & Skill Development.(4th ed).

Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. 198 • • • • • • • • • Businessballs management information website – Leadership Theories page, 'Integrated Psychological Approach' section: • Scouller, J. The Three Levels of Leadership: How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow and Skill. Cirencester: Management Books 2000., • Scouller, J.

• Businessballs information website: Leadership Theories Page, Integrated Psychological Approach section. Businessballs.com.: 2012-02-24.

Retrieved 2012-08-15 • Scouller, J. M.; Avolio, B.

J.; Atwater, L. 'The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women'. Applied Psychology: an International Review. M., & Riggio, R. Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers; US. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc..

B.; Novak, M. A.; Sommerkamp, P. 'The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model'. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance. 30 (1): 109–131..

• Dansereau, F.; Graen, G.; Haga, W. 'A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process'. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance. 13 (1): 46–78.. • ^ Howell, Jon P.

Snapshots of Great Leadership. London, GBR: Taylor and Francis. • Howell, Jon P.

Snapshots of Great Leadership. London, GBR: Taylor and Francis. 'Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence'. Human Relations. 53 (8): 1027–1055..

• ^ Sy, T.; Cote, S.; Saavedra, R. Journal of Applied Psychology. 90 (2): 295–305... E.; Ilies, R. 'Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion'. The Leadership Quarterly.

17 (4): 317–334.. • ^ George J. 'Leader Positive Mood and Group Performance: The Case of Customer Service'. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 25(9): pp.

778–794 • Dasborough, M. 'Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors'. The Leadership Quarterly. 17 (2): 163–178..

• ^ Forsyth, Donelson (2010). Group Dynamics. Belmont, California: Wadsworth. I/O applications workbook: Industrial/organizational psychology an applied approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Rising to the occasion: foundations, processes, and outcomes of emergent leadership.

• Chan, K., & Drasgow, F. Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership: Understanding the motivation to lead. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 481-498. Doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.481 • Ames, Daniel R.; Flynn, Francis J.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 92 (2): 307–324..

• Ilies, Remus; Morgeson, Frederick P.; Nahrgang, Jennifer D. The Leadership Quarterly. 16 (3): 373–394... • ^ Judge, Timothy A.; Bono, Joyce E.; Ilies, Remus; Gerhardt, Megan W.. Journal of Applied Psychology.

87 (4): 765–780.. • Matthews, Michael D.; Eid, Jarle; Kelly, Dennis; Bailey, Jennifer K. S.; Peterson, Christopher.. Military Psychology.

18 (Suppl): S57–S68.. Retrieved 2017-02-16.

• Lord, Robert G.; Vader, Christy L. De; Alliger, George M..

Journal of Applied Psychology. 71 (3): 402–410.. • Melvin., Stogdill, Ralph (1990-01-01).. Free Press... • Simonton, Dean K.. Psychological Review. 92 (4): 532–547..

Retrieved 2017-02-16. L.; Blascovich, J. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 10 (4): 595–616.. Retrieved 2017-02-16.

• Sorrentino, Richard M.; Field, Nigel.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

50 (6): 1091–1099.. •, Political Style, U of Chicago Press, 1995 •, L'Hyperpolitique. Technologies politiques De La Domination, Paris, 2009 • ^; Lippitt, R.; White, R.

'Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates'. Journal of Social Psychology. • Headquarters, Department of the Army (2006).

'Army Leadership. Competent, Confident, and Agile'. Washington, D.C., 12 October 2006 p. Publication available at Army Knowledge Online (www.us.army.mil) and General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine Digital Library at (www.train.army.mil). • Griffin, Ronald J. Ebert, Ricky W.

Business essentials (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. • Forsyth, D.

Group dynamics. New York: Wadsworth.. • ^ Howell, Jon P. Snapshots of Great Leadership. London, GBR: Taylor and Francis. • Forthcoming in 'The Handbook for Teaching Leadership', by Werner Erhard, Michael, C.

Jensen, & Kari Granger; Scott Snook, Nitin Nohria, Rakesh Khurana (Editors) • Cecil A Gibb (1970). Leadership (Handbook of Social Psychology). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Knowles; Borje O. Saxberg (1971). Personality and Leadership Behavior.

Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. • Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. 'Leadership, followership, and evolution': Some lessons from the past. American Psychologist, 63, 182–196. • Hoyle, John R. Leadership and Futuring: Making Visions Happen.

Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc., 1995. • Hakala, David.. Archived from on 2013-04-10.

B.; TESLUK, P. E.; MARRONE, J. Academy of Management Journal. 50 (5): 1217–1234.. • Ingrid Bens (2006). Facilitating to Lead.

• Bart Barthelemy (1997). The Sky Is Not The Limit – Breakthrough Leadership.

• National School Boards Association • Hackman, M. & Johnson, C. Leadership: A communication perspective.

Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. • van Vugt, M., & Ahuja, A.

Naturally Selected: the Evolutionary Science of Leadership. • Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson (1996).. Mariner Books • • Gardner, J. Self-Renewal: The Individual and the Innovative Society. New York: Harper and Row.

Where have all the leaders gone? Washington, D.C.: Federal Executive Institute.

• ^ Forsyth, D. Group dynamics (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole. • Baumeister, R.

F.; Senders, P. S.; Chesner, S. 'Who's in charge here? Group leaders do lend help in emergencies'.

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. • Jung, D.; Wu, A.; Chow, C. 'Towards understanding the direct and indirect effects of CEOs transformational leadership on firm innovation'. The Leadership Quarterly. 19: 582–594.. • Zaccaro, S. J.; & Banks, D.

'Leadership, vision, and organizational effectiveness'. Zaccaro and R. Klimoski (Editors), The Nature of Organizational Leadership: Understanding the Performance Imperatives Confronting Today's Leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jr.; Christensen, C.; Abbot, A. S.; Franz, T. 'Diagnosing groups: Charting the flow of information in medical decision-making teams'.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 71: 315–330.. • Lipman-Blumen, J. (2005) The Allure of Toxic Leaders. New York: Oxford. University Press Inc.

R.; Ehrlich, S. B.; Dukerich, J. 'The romance of leadership'. Administrative Science Quarterly. • Schmid Mast, M (2002). 'Female dominance hierarchies: Are they any different from males'?' Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

• Berdahl, J. L.; Anderson, C. 'Men, women, and leadership centralization in groups over time'.

Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice. • Guastello, S. 'Nonlinear dynamics and leadership emergence'.

Leadership Quarterly. 18: 357–369..

• Berkowitz, L (1953). 'Sharing leadership in small, decision-making groups'. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 48: 231–238..

• Stewart, G. 'Leadership for self-managing work teams: A typology and integrative model'. Human Relations.

48: 747–770.. • Schelten, Andreas. • Boehm, B.W.. • (2012) [1945]. 'Preface to the First Edition'. London: Routledge.

Retrieved 2017-08-20. [.] if our civilisation is to survive, we must break with the habit of deference to great men. Great men may make great mistakes; and [.] some of the greatest leaders of the past supported the perennial attack on freedom and reason. Their influence, too rarely challenged, continues to mislead [.] • Profit over People: neoliberalism and global order, N.

Chomsky, 1999 Ch. 'Consent without Consent', p.

53 • The Relationship between Servant Leadership, Follower Trust, Team Commitment and Unit Effectiveness, Zani Dannhauser, Doctoral Thesis, Stellenbosch University 2007 • For example: Wheatcroft, Andrew; (2012) [1989]. (Revised ed.). London: Random House.. Retrieved 2017-08-20. • Sperry, Len (September 1997).. Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. Books • Blake, R.; Mouton, J.

The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin..

A theory of leadership effectiveness. McGraw-Hill: Harper and Row Publishers Inc. Leadership without Easy Answers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.. • Hemphill, John K. Situational Factors in Leadership.

Columbus: Ohio State University Bureau of Educational Research. • Hersey, Paul; Blanchard, Ken; Johnson, D. Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.. Organizational Behavior: Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership. The Study of Sociology.

• Tittemore, James A. Leadership at all Levels. Canada: Boskwa Publishing..

•; Yetton, Phillip W. Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.. • (Spring 1974) Book Review: Leadership and Decision Making by Vroom & Yetton, 15(3): 100 •; Jago, Arthur G.

The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.. • Van Wormer, Katherine S.; Besthorn, Fred H.; Keefe, Thomas (2007). Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Macro Level: Groups, Communities, and Organizations. US: Oxford University Press.. • Montana, Patrick J.; Bruce H. Hauppauge, New York: Barron's Educational Series, Inc..

• Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010).

Psychology and work today: an introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Journal articles • (1958) 'Effective democratic leadership: a psychological interpretation', 14: 128–38, and pages 139–49 in Psychology, Humanism and Scientific Inquiry (1988) edited by Albert H.

• House, Robert J. 'A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness'.. Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University. 16 (3): 321–339... • House, Robert J. 'Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory'.. 7 (3): 323–352..

•; Lippitt, Ronald; White, Ralph (1939). 'Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates'.: 271–301.

• Kirkpatrick, Shelley A.; (1991). Academy of Management Executive. • Spillane, James P.; Halverson, Richard; Diamond, John B. 'Towards a theory of leadership practice'. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 36 (1): 3–34..

•; Sternberg, Robert J. 'Theoretical Letters: The person versus the situation in leadership'.. 13 (3): 301–323.. Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to.