Energy distribution of weapon Energy type Standard% Enhanced% Blast 50 40 to minimum 30 Thermal energy 35 25 to minimum 20 Prompt radiation 5 45 to minimum 30 Residual radiation 10 5 A neutron bomb, officially defined as a type of enhanced radiation weapon (ERW), is a low yield designed to maximize lethal in the immediate vicinity of the blast while minimizing the physical power of the blast itself. The neutron release generated by a reaction is intentionally allowed to escape the weapon, rather than being absorbed by its other components. The neutron burst, which is used as the primary destructive action of the warhead, is able to penetrate enemy armor more effectively than a conventional warhead, thus making it more lethal as a tactical weapon. The concept was originally developed by the US in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It was seen as a 'cleaner' bomb for use against massed armored divisions. As these would be used over allied nations, notably, the reduced blast damage was seen as an important advantage. Development for the was underway in the early 1960s, but abandoned in favor of a conventional design.

PROTECTION OF THE BUILDINGS AGAINST THE EXPLOSION EFFECTS. Losses of file or injury are the results from many causes, including direct effects. Explosion in Oslo). Damage of masonry building. Effects of Air-Blast loads on buildings. In the analysis of a structure under explosion in air, the problem. Blast Effects on Buildings, 2nd edition [D. Smith] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Blast effects on buildings, second edition provides the latest practical guidance on designing buildings to optimise their resilience to blast loading. Digital Electronics By J S Katre Pdf. Focused specifically on the design of commercial.

ERWs were first operationally deployed for (ABM). In this role the burst of neutrons would cause nearby warheads to undergo partial fission, preventing them from exploding properly. For this to work, the ABM would have to explode within a few hundred feet of its target. The first example of such a system was the, used on the missile used in the US's system.

It is believed the Soviet equivalent, the 's missile, uses a similar design. The weapon was once again proposed for tactical use by the US in the 1970s and 1980s, and production of the W70 began for the Lance in 1981. This time it experienced a firestorm of protest as the growing movement gained strength through this period. Opposition was so intense that European leaders refused to accept it on their territory. Bowed to pressure and the built examples of the remained stockpiled in the US until they were retired in 1992. The last W70 was dismantled in 2011. The 1979 Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion plan, ' to seize.

Soviet analysts had correctly assumed that the NATO response would be to use regular to stop such a massive Warsaw Pact invasion. According to proponents, neutron bombs would blunt an invasion by Soviet tanks and armored vehicles without causing as much damage or civilian deaths as the older nuclear weapons would. Neutron bombs would have been used if the conventional response of to the invasion was too slow or ineffective. Neutron bombs are purposely designed with explosive yields lower than other nuclear weapons. Since neutrons are scattered and absorbed by air, neutron radiation effects drop off rapidly with distance in air.

As such, there is a sharper distinction, relative to thermal effects, between areas of high lethality and areas with minimal radiation doses. All high yield (more than c. 10 ) nuclear bombs, such as the extreme example of a device that derived 97% of its energy from fusion, the 50, are not able to radiate sufficient neutrons beyond their lethal blast range when detonated as a surface burst or low altitude and so are no longer classified as neutron bombs, thus limiting the yield of neutron bombs to a maximum of about 10 kilotons. The intense of high-energy neutrons generated by a neutron bomb is the principal killing mechanism, not the fallout, heat or blast. The inventor of the neutron bomb, Sam Cohen, criticized the description of the W70 as a neutron bomb since it could be configured to yield 100 kilotons: the W-70. Is not even remotely a 'neutron bomb.' Instead of being the type of weapon that, in the popular mind, 'kills people and spares buildings' it is one that both kills and physically destroys on a massive scale.

The W-70 is not a discriminate weapon, like the neutron bomb—which, incidentally, should be considered a weapon that 'kills enemy personnel while sparing the physical fabric of the attacked populace, and even the populace too.' Although neutron bombs are commonly believed to 'leave the infrastructure intact', with current designs that have explosive yields in the low kiloton range, detonation in (or above) a built-up area would still cause a sizable degree of building destruction, through blast and heat effects out to a moderate radius, albeit considerably less destruction, than when compared to a standard nuclear bomb of the exact same total energy release or 'yield'. Army in a 1984 REFORGER staging area before transport. Variants of this 'dual capable' howitzer would launch the neutron bomb. The, and was likely to be to use this numerical advantage to rapidly sweep across continental Europe if the Cold War ever turned hot. Any weapon that could break up their intended mass tank formation deployments and force them to deploy their tanks in a thinner, more, would aid ground forces in the task of hunting down solitary tanks and using against them, such as the contemporary and missiles, of which NATO had hundreds of thousands.

Rather than making extensive preparations for battlefield nuclear combat in Central Europe, 'The Soviet military leadership believed that conventional superiority provided the Warsaw Pact with the means to approximate the effects of nuclear weapons and achieve victory in Europe without resort to those weapons.' Neutron bombs, or more precisely, enhanced [neutron] radiation weapons were also to find use as strategic anti-ballistic missile weapons, and in this role they are believed to remain in active service within Russia's Gazelle missile. Wood frame house in 1953 nuclear test, 5 pounds per square inch (psi) overpressure, full collapse.

Although neutron bombs, such as that fitted on the MGM-52 Lance missile would cause similar levels of destruction as depicted here within the zone were ~1970s tank crews would also be incapacitated by neutron radiation. When compared to the range of destruction that would be caused by the comparatively higher yield conventional nuclear weapons that it supplanted (e.g., ), which had been needed to deliver the same range and intensity of neutron dose to neutralize tank crews, the range of civilian destruction and amount of generated by a neutron bomb is far more constrained. This would spare the destruction of West Germany more than would otherwise be the case. Upon detonation, a near-ground of a 1 kiloton neutron bomb would produce a large blast wave and a powerful pulse of both thermal radiation and, and non-ionizing radiation in the form of fast (14.1 ) neutrons. The thermal pulse would cause to unprotected skin out to approximately 500 meters.

The blast would create at least 4.6 psi out to a radius of 600 meters, which would severely damage all non-reinforced concrete structures. At the conventional effective combat range against modern and (.

The and absorption probability in of the two natural isotopes found in nature (top curve is for 10 B and bottom curve for 11 B. As neutron energy increases to 14 MeV, the absorption effectiveness, in general, decreases. Thus, for boron-containing armor to be effective, fast neutrons must first be slowed by another element. The questionable effectiveness of ER weapons against modern tanks is cited as one of the main reasons that these weapons are no longer fielded. With the increase in average tank armor thickness since the first ER weapons were fielded, tank armor protection approaches the level where tank crews are now almost fully protected from radiation effects. Thus, for an ER weapon to incapacitate a modern tank crew through irradiation, the weapon must now be detonated at such a close proximity to the tank that the 's blast would now be equally effective at incapacitating it and its crew.

However this assertion was regarded as dubious in a reply in 1986 by a member of the as neutron radiation from a 1 kiloton neutron bomb would incapacitate the crew of a tank with a of 35 out to a range of 280 meters, but the incapacitating blast range, depending on the exact weight of the tank, is much less, from 70 to 130 meters. However although the author did note that effective and such as can be incorporated into conventional armor and strap-on hydrogenous material (substances containing hydrogen atoms), such as explosive, can both increase the protection factor, the author holds that in practice combined with, the actual average total tank area protection factor is rarely higher than 15.5 to 35. According to the, the neutron protection factor of a 'tank' can be as low as 2, without qualifying whether the statement implies a,,. A composite, or alternatively, a laminated, 24 units thick of which 16 units are iron and 8 units are containing boron (BPE), and additional mass behind it to attenuate neutron capture gamma rays, is more effective than just 24 units of pure iron or BPE alone, due to the advantages of both iron and BPE in combination. Iron is effective in slowing down/scattering high-energy neutrons in the 14-MeV energy range and attenuating gamma rays, while the hydrogen in polyethylene is effective in slowing down these now slower in the few MeV range, and boron 10 has a high absorption cross section for and a low production yield of gamma rays when it absorbs a neutron.

The Soviet tank, in response to the neutron bomb threat, is cited as having fitted a boronated polyethylene liner, which has had its neutron shielding properties simulated. The for neutrons of various energy has been revised over time and certain agencies have different weighting factors, however despite the variation amongst the agencies, from the graph, for a given energy, A (14.1 MeV) although more energetic, is less biologically harmful as rated in, than a fission generated thermal neutron or a fusion neutron slowed to that energy, c. 0.8 MeV. However, some tank armor material contains (DU), common in the US's tank, which incorporates steel-encased depleted uranium armor, a substance that will fast fission when it a fast, fusion-generated neutron, and thus on fissioning will produce and embedded within the armor, products which emit among other things, penetrating gamma rays. Although the neutrons emitted by the neutron bomb may not penetrate to the tank crew in lethal quantities, the fast fission of DU within the armor could still ensure a lethal environment for the crew and maintenance personnel by fission neutron and gamma ray exposure [ – ], largely depending on the exact thickness and elemental composition of the armor—information usually hard to attain. Despite this, —which has an elemental composition similar to, but not identical to the ceramic of the Abrams tank—is an effective radiation shield, to both fission neutrons and gamma rays due to it being a graded Z material.

Uranium, being about twice as dense as lead, is thus nearly twice as effective at shielding gamma ray radiation per unit thickness. Use against ballistic missiles [ ] As an anti-ballistic missile weapon, the first fielded ER warhead, the W66, was developed for the Sprint missile system as part of the Safeguard Program to protect United States cities and from incoming Soviet warheads by damaging their electronic components with the intense. Greater than 5,000 rads in delivered over seconds to minutes will degrade the function of for long periods. Due to the rarefied atmosphere encountered high above the earth at the most likely intercept point of an incoming warhead by a neutron bomb/warhead – the (10–30 km) of the incoming warhead's flight—the neutrons generated by a mid- to (HANE) have an even greater range than that encountered after a low altitude air burst. In the high altitude case, there is a lower density of air molecules that produces, an appreciable reduction in the air shielding effect/.

However, although this neutron transparency advantage attained only increases at increased altitudes, neutron effects lose importance in the environment, being overtaken by the range of another effect of a nuclear detonation, at approximately the same altitude as the end of the incoming missile's (c. 150 km), producing are the chief nuclear effects threat to the survival of incoming missiles and warheads rather than neutrons. A factor exploited by the other warhead of the Safeguard Program, the enhanced (X-ray) radiation and its USSR/Russian counterpart, the warhead on the missile.

Another method by which neutron radiation can be used to destroy incoming nuclear warheads is by serving as an intense and to thus initiate fission in the incoming warhead's fissionable components by fast fission [ ], potentially causing the incoming warhead to prematurely detonate in a if within sufficient proximity, but in most likely interception ranges, requiring only that enough material in the warhead fissions to interfere with the functioning of the incoming warhead when it is later fuzed to explode (see related physics: ). (Li6H) is cited as being used as a countermeasure to reduce the vulnerability and 'harden' nuclear warheads from the effects of externally generated neutrons.

Of the warhead's electronic components as a countermeasure to high altitude neutron warheads somewhat reduces the range that a neutron warhead could successfully cause an unrecoverable by the transient radiation effects on electronics (TREE) effects. Use as an area denial weapon [ ] In November 2012, during the planning stages of, British Labour peer suggested that multiple enhanced radiation reduced blast (ERRB) warheads could be detonated in the mountain region of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border to prevent infiltration. He proposed to warn the inhabitants to evacuate, then irradiate the area, making it unusable and impassable. Used in this manner, the neutron bomb(s), regardless of burst height, would release casing materials used in the bomb, and depending on burst height, create radioactive soil. In much the same fashion as the effect resulting from fission product (the substances that make up most ) contamination in an area following a conventional nuclear explosion, as considered in the Korean War by, it would thus be a form of —with the difference that neutron bombs produce half, or less, of the quantity of fission products relative to the same-yield pure. Radiological warfare with neutron bombs that rely on would thus still produce fission fallout, albeit a comparatively cleaner and shorter lasting version of it in the area if air bursts were used, as little to no fission products would be deposited on the direct immediate area, instead becoming diluted global. However the most effective use of a neutron bomb with respect to area denial would be to encase it in a thick shell of material that could be neutron activated, and use a surface burst.

In this manner the neutron bomb would be turned into a; a case of, produced as a byproduct of enrichment, would for example probably be the most attractive for military use, as when activated, the zinc-65 so formed is a gamma emitter, with a half life of 244 days. Maintenance [ ] Neutron bombs- require considerable maintenance for their abilities, requiring some for [ ] and tritium in the (yielding more neutrons), in amounts on the order of a few tens of grams (10–30 grams estimated). Because tritium has a relatively short of 12.32 years (after that time, half the tritium has decayed), it is necessary to replenish it periodically to keep the bomb effective. (For instance: to maintain a constant level of 24 grams of tritium in a warhead, about 1.3 grams per bomb per year must be supplied.) Moreover, tritium into, which absorbs neutrons and will thus further reduce the bomb's neutron yield.

See also [ ] • - similar strategic use, low yield nuclear weapons. • • • • • - a compact nuclear warhead. References [ ].

• Muller, Richard A. Norton & Company. Oak Ridge National Lab. 21 October 2011.

• ^ Kistiakovsky, George (Sep 1978).. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Retrieved 11 February 2011. • Hafemeister, David W. Retrieved 2013-11-30. Retrieved 2013-11-30.

Retrieved 2013-11-30. • (December 1, 2010)... Retrieved 2010-12-02. After the war, he joined the RAND Corporation and in 1958 designed a neutron bomb as a way to strike a cluster of enemy forces while sparing infrastructure and distant civilian populations.

• ^ Cochran, Thomas; Arkin, William; Hoenig, Milton (1987). Nuclear Weapons Databook: U.S. Nuclear warhead production.

Ballinger Publishing. • ', by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph. Retrieved 2010-07-02. Jimmy Carter's successor, Ronald Reagan, changed US policy and gave the order for the production of neutron warheads to start in 1981. Archived from on November 10, 2011. Archived from on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2012-10-11.

• (June 15, 1997)... Cosmic Rays Particle Physics Gaisser Pdf Writer on this page. Retrieved 2010-07-03. With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of communism as we knew it, the Bush administration moved to dismantle all of our tactical nuclear weapons, including the Reagan stockpile of neutron bombs. In Cohen's mind, America was brought back to square one.

Without tactical weapons like neutron bombs, America would be left with two choices if an enemy was winning a conventional war: surrender, or unleash the holocaust of strategic nuclear weapons. Retrieved 2012-10-12. • John Pike.. Retrieved 2012-10-12. National Nuclear Security Administration. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

• Cohen, Samuel (9 August 1999).. Insight on the News.

Retrieved 2012-10-12. • UK parliamentary question on whether condemnation was considered by • Ray, Jonathan (January 2015). China Strategic Perspectives.

Washington, DC: National Defense University Press. • • ^ • The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and Its Proliferation, By Thomas C. Reed, Danny B. Stillman (2010), page 181 • Wittner, Lawrence S. Stanford University Press. • Auten, Brian J.

University of Missouri Press. •, Donald Snow • Herken, Greff (2003).. • Asimov, Isaac. The New Intelligent Man's Guide to Science. Basic Books, New York, 1965. • Dewar, Dale; Oelck, Florian (2014).. Between the Lines.

• ISN Editors.. International Relations And Security Network. Archived from on 8 October 2013.

Retrieved 23 December 2014. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list () •. • Healy, Melissa (October 3, 1987)... Retrieved 2012-08-08. Insight on the News. 9 August 1999.

Retrieved 5 June 2015. – via (subscription required) •. Retrieved 2012-10-12. • Calculated from assuming 0.5 kt combined blast and thermal • (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-12. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

Journal of Science and Engineering Vol. 1 (2), 2013, 95-101. Some of this article's may not be. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (April 2017) (). • Paper Summary Submitted to Spectrum 2000, Sept 24-28, 2000, Chattanooga, TN.

Ducrete: A Cost Effective Radiation Shielding Material. Quote- 'The Ducrete/DUAGG replaces the conventional aggregate in concrete producing concrete with a density of 5.6 to 6.4 g/cm3 (compared to 2.3 g/cm3 for conventional concrete).

This shielding material has the unique feature of having both high Z and low Z elements in a single matrix. Consequently, it is very effective for the attenuation of gamma and neutron radiation.' Lobach,, Waste Management 2006 Conference,Tucson, Arizona, February 26–March 2, 2006. Nuclear weapon-generated X-rays are the chief threat to the survival of strategic missiles in-flight above the atmosphere and to satellites. The Neutron and gamma ray effects dominate at lower altitudes where the air absorbs most of the X-rays. Due to moderating ability and light weight, used to harden weapons against outside neutron fluxes (especially in combination with Li-6).The very high cross section of this reaction for thermalized neutrons, combined with the light weight of the Li-6 atom, make it useful in the form of lithium hydride for hardening of nuclear weapons against external neutron fluxes. The fact that Li6H is used in unspecified weapons for hardening •.

Retrieved 2012-11-27. • Kalinowski, Martin (2004).. • Zerriffi, Hisham (January 1996)...

• After a year the initial amount of 24 grams of tritium decays to 2^(-1/12.32)x 24=22.68 grams. • When absorbing neutrons, helium-3 produces back some tritium, but it comes too late in the reaction for fusion boosting and does not compensate for the decayed tritium missing at the reaction start. [ ] Further reading [ ] • (1983). The Truth About the Neutron Bomb: The Inventor of the Bomb Speaks Out.. • (September 2015). (PDF) (4th ed.).

Retrieved 2016-11-14. External links [ ] • • Definition and history of the neutron bomb • • or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.